![]() These adaptations function to benefit individual reproductive interests at the cost of the reproductive interests of opposite-sex mates, and arise from evolutionary dynamics such as parental investment (unequal reproductive costs between the sexes) and sexual selection (unequal access to opposite-sex mates). Shackelford, Oakland University, Department of Psychology, Rochester, MI, USA.Ībstract: Coevolutionary arms races between males and females have equipped both sexes with mutually manipulative and defensive adaptations. Gregory Gorelik, Department of Psychology, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Email: (Corresponding author). This behavior is costly to both sides, and counter-adaptations have evolved in the victim sex ranging from cooperative defense of their young to loss minimization strategies such as aborting existing offspring upon the arrival of a new male (the Bruce effect).Human Sexual Conflict from Molecules to Culture Males then mate with them and care for the young of the female which destroyed their previous offspring. As males are a limiting resource, females will commonly displace or kill their young. Females guard a territory while males care for their young. Jacana jacana, a tropical wading bird, offers one example of infanticide by the female sex. This results in vicious battles in which injuries and even death are not uncommon. Females only have one clutch in their lifetime, and experience reduced reproductive success if they lose them. One such case is the spider Stegodyphus lineatus, where males invade female nests and toss out their egg sacs. This behavior also occurs in the invertebrates, however. Vertebrates have received the most research, with cases such as hanuman langurs, lions, house sparrows and mice being studied. It is usually the males who perpetrate such behavior, though it is not unknown for females to behave in the same way. Sexual conflict is one of the most common causes, although other cases are seen, such as male bass eating their own juvenile descendants. Infanticide is a behavior that occurs in many species where an adult kills younger individuals, including eggs. Infanticide Further information: Infanticide (zoology) One way of sorting these is by temporal relation to a given reference point, e.g. There are a wide variety of manifestations of sexual conflict, occurring in a broad range of taxa. Some regard sexual conflict as a subset of sexual selection, while others suggest it is a separate evolutionary phenomena. Sexual conflict may lead to sexually antagonistic co-evolution, in which one sex (usually males) evolves a "manipulative" trait which is countered by a "resistance" trait in the other sex. A classic example is the human hip, where females need larger hips for childbirth. they are expressed differently in the sexes. Intralocus sexual conflict, where the same set of alleles in males and females have different optima.Another form is sexual harassment, where males harm females to gain access to matings, such as when toxins are released in sperm by male Drosophila melanogaster. This can be in the form of conflict over parental care, where males are more prone to abandon offspring. Interlocus sexual conflict, where male alleles have conflicting interests with females.It has primarily been studied in animals, though it can in principle apply to any sexually reproducing organism, such as plants. Sexual conflict occurs when the two sexes have conflicting optimal fitness strategies concerning reproduction, leading to evolutionary arms race between males and females.
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